Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson

The Right Honourable Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, KB ( 29 September 1758 – 21 October 1805) - British admiral from England who won fame as a leading naval commander. He is famous for his participation in the Napoleonic Wars, most notably in the Battle of Trafalgar, where he lost his life. He became the greatest naval hero in the history of the United Kingdom, eclipsing Admiral Robert Blake in fame, and is one of the most famous naval commanders in world history. His biography by the poet Robert Southey appeared in 1813, while the wars were still being fought. His love affair with Emma Hamilton, the wife of the British ambassador to Naples is also well known, and he is honoured by the London landmark of Nelson's Column, which stands in Trafalgar Square.

Biography

Early life

Horatio Nelson was born in Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk, England to the Reverend Edmund Nelson and Catherine Nelson. (His mother was a grandniece of Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford.) His mother died when Nelson was nine. Nelson was the sixth child out of eleven. He learned to sail on Barton Broad on the Norfolk Broads, was briefly educated at Paston Grammar School, North Walsham and Norwich School and by the time he was twelve, he had enrolled in the Royal Navy. His naval career began on 1 January 1771, when he reported to the third-rate Raisonnable as an Ordinary Seaman and coxswain. Nelson’s maternal uncle Captain Maurice Suckling commanded the vessel. Shortly after reporting aboard, Nelson was appointed a midshipman and began officer training. Ironically, Nelson found that he suffered from chronic seasickness, a complaint that dogged him for the rest of his life.

By 1777 he had risen to the rank of lieutenant, and was assigned to the West Indies, during which time he saw action on the British side of the American Revolutionary War. By the time he was 20, in June 1779, he was made post; the 28-gun frigate Hinchinbrook, newly captured from the French, was his first command as a post-captain.

In 1781 he was involved in an action against the Spanish fortress of San Juan in Nicaragua. Though a success, the efforts involved still damaged Nelson's health to the extent that he returned to England for more than a year. He eventually returned to active duty and was assigned to Albemarle, in which he continued his efforts against the American rebels until the official end of the war in 1783.

Command

In 1784, Nelson was given command of the 28-gun frigate Boreas, and assigned to enforce the Navigation Act in the vicinity of Antigua. This was during the denouement of the American Revolutionary War, and enforcement of the act was problematic—now-foreign American vessels were no longer allowed to trade with British colonies in the Caribbean Sea, an unpopular rule with both the colonies and the Americans. After seizing four American vessels off Nevis, Nelson was sued by the captains of the ships for illegal seizure. As the merchants of Nevis supported them, Nelson was in peril of imprisonment and had to remain sequestered on Boreas for eight months. It took that long for the courts to deny the captains their claims, but in the interim Nelson met Fanny Nesbit, a widow native to Nevis, whom he would marry on 11 March 1787 at the end of his tour of duty in the Caribbean.

Nelson lacked a command from 1789, and lived on half pay for several years (a reasonably common occurrence in the peacetime Royal Navy). However, as the French Revolutionary government began aggressive moves beyond France's borders, he was recalled to service. Given the 64-gun Agamemnon in 1793, he soon started a long series of battles and engagements that would seal his place in history.

He was first assigned to the Mediterranean, based out of the Kingdom of Naples. In 1794 he was wounded in the face by stones and debris thrown up by a close cannon shot during a joint operation at Calvi, Corsica. This cost him the sight in his right eye and half of his right eyebrow. Despite popular legend, there is no evidence that Nelson ever wore an eye patch, though he was known to wear an eyeshade to protect his remaining eye.

In 1796, the commander-in-chief of the fleet in the Mediterranean passed to Sir John Jervis, who appointed Nelson to be commodore and to exercise independent command over the ships blockading the French coast. Agamemnon, often described as Nelson's favourite ship, was by now worn out and was sent back to England for repairs. Nelson was appointed to HMS Captain 74.

Admiralty

1797 was a full year for Nelson. On February 14, he was largely responsible for the British victory at the Battle of Cape St Vincent. In the aftermath, Nelson was knighted as a member of the Order of the Bath (hence the postnominal initials "KB"). In April of the same year he was promoted to Rear Admiral of the Blue, the ninth highest rank in the Royal Navy. Later in the year, during an unsuccessful expedition to conquer Santa Cruz de Tenerife, he was shot in the right arm with a musket ball, fracturing his humerus bone in multiple places. Since medical science of the day counseled amputation for almost all serious limb wounds (to prevent gangrene, and subsequent death) Nelson lost almost his entire right arm, and was unfit for duty until mid-December. He referred to the stub as "my fin."

This was not his only reverse. In December 1796, on leaving Elba for Gibraltar, Nelson transferred his flag to the frigate Minerve (of French construction, commanded by Captain Cockburn). A Spanish frigate, Santa Sabina, was captured during the passage and Lieutenant Hardy was put in charge of the captured vessel. The following morning, two Spanish ships of the line and one frigate appeared. Nelson decided to flee, leaving Santa Sabina to be recovered by the Spanish and Hardy was captured. The Spanish captain who was on board Minerve was later exchanged for Hardy in Gibraltar.

In 1798, Nelson was once again responsible for a great victory over the French. The Battle of the Nile (also known as the Battle of Aboukir Bay) took place on 1 August 1798 and, as a result, Napoleon's ambition to take the war to the British in India came to an end. The forces Napoleon had brought to Egypt were stranded. Napoleon attempted to march north along the Mediterranean coast but was defeated at the Siege of Acre by Captain Sir Sidney Smith. Napoleon then left his army and sailed back to France, evading detection by British ships.

For the spectacular victory of the Nile, Nelson was granted the title of Baron Nelson of the Nile (Nelson felt cheated that he was not awarded a more prestigious title; Sir John Jervis had been made Earl of St Vincent for his part in that battle, but the British Government insisted that an officer who was not the commander-in-chief, could not be raised to any peerage higher than a barony. Nelson felt throughout his life that his accomplishments were not fully rewarded by the British government, a fact he ascribed to his more humble birth and lack of political connections when compared to Sir John Jervis, or The Duke of Wellington).

Not content to rest on his laurels, he then rescued the Neapolitan royal family from a French invasion in December. During this time, he fell in love with Emma Hamilton—the young wife of the elderly British ambassador to Naples. She became his mistress, returning to England to live openly with him, and eventually they had a daughter, Horatia. Some have suggested that a head wound he received at Abukir Bay was partially responsible for that conduct, and for the way he conducted the Neapolitan campaign—due simultaneously to his English hatred of Jacobins and his status as a Neapolitan royalist (he had been made Duke of Bronte in Sicily by the King of Naples in 1799)—now considered something of a disgrace to his name. He was accused of allowing the monarchists to kill prisoners contrary to the laws of war.

In 1799, he was promoted to Rear Admiral of the Red, the seventh highest rank in the Royal Navy. He was then assigned to the new second-rate Foudroyant. In July, he aided Admiral Ushakov with the reconquest of Naples, and was made Duke of Bronte by the Neapolitan king. His personal problems, and upper-level disappointment at his professional conduct caused him to be recalled to England, but public knowledge of his affection for Lady Hamilton eventually induced the Admiralty to send him back to sea if only to get him away from her.

On 1 January 1801, he was promoted to Vice Admiral of the Blue (the sixth highest rank). Within a few months he took part in the Battle of Copenhagen ( 2 April 1801) which was fought in order to break up the armed neutrality of Denmark, Sweden and Russia. During the battle, Nelson was ordered to cease the battle by his commander Sir Hyde Parker who believed that the Danish fire was too effective. In a famous incident, however, Nelson claimed he could not see the signal flags conveying the order, pointedly raising his telescope to his blind eye. (Though firmly part of the Nelson mythology, some biographers think this account may be apocryphal.) His action was approved in retrospect, and in May, he became commander-in-chief in the Baltic Sea, and was awarded the title of Viscount Nelson by the British crown.

Napoleon was amassing forces to invade England, however, and Nelson was soon placed in charge of defending the English Channel to prevent this. However, on 22 October an armistice was signed between the British and the French, and Nelson—in poor health again—retired to England where he stayed with his friends, Sir William and Lady Hamilton.

The three embarked on a tour of England and Wales, culminating in a stay in Birmingham, during which they visited Matthew Boulton on his sick bed at Soho House, and toured his Soho Manufactory.

The Battle of Trafalgar - death and burial

The Peace of Amiens was not to last long though, and Nelson soon returned to duty. He was appointed commander-in-chief of the Mediterranean, and assigned to HMS Victory in May 1803. He joined the blockade of Toulon, France, and would not again set foot on dry land for more than two years. Nelson was promoted to Vice Admiral of the White (the fifth highest rank) while he was still at sea, on 23 April 1804. The French fleet slipped out of Toulon in early 1805 and headed for the West Indies (see battle of Cape Finisterre (1805) for a summary of this campaign). A stern chase failed to turn them up and Nelson's health forced him to retire to Merton in England.

Within two months, his ease ended. On 13 September 1805, he was called upon to oppose the French and Spanish fleets, which had managed to join up and take refuge in the harbour of Cádiz, Spain.

On 21 October 1805, Nelson engaged in his final battle, the Battle of Trafalgar. Napoleon Bonaparte had been massing forces once again for the invasion of the British Isles. However, he had already decided that his navy was not adequate to secure the Channel for the invasion barges and had started moving his troops away for a campaign elsewhere in Europe. On the 19th, the French and Spanish fleet left Cádiz, probably because Pierre-Charles Villeneuve, the French commander, had heard that he was to be replaced by another admiral. Nelson, with twenty-seven ships, engaged the thirty-three opposing ships.

Nelson's last dispatch, written on the 21st, read:

At daylight saw the Enemy's Combined Fleet from East to E.S.E.; bore away; made the signal for Order of Sailing, and to Prepare for Battle; the Enemy with their heads to the Southward: at seven the Enemy wearing in succession. May the Great God, whom I worship, grant to my Country, and for the benefit of Europe in general, a great and glorious Victory; and may no misconduct in any one tarnish it; and may humanity after Victory be the predominant feature in the British Fleet. For myself, individually, I commit my life to Him who made me, and may his blessing light upon my endeavours for serving my Country faithfully. To Him I resign myself and the just cause which is entrusted to me to defend. Amen. Amen.

As the two fleets moved towards engagement, he then ran up a thirty-one flag signal to the rest of the fleet which spelled out the famous phrase " England expects that every man will do his duty". The original signal that Nelson wished to make to the fleet was England confides that every man will do his duty (meaning 'is confident that they will'). The signal officer asked Nelson if he could substitute the word 'expects' for 'confides' as 'expects' was included in the telegraphic code devised by Sir Home Popham whereas 'confides' would have to be spelled letter by letter. Nelson agreed and the signal was run up Victory's mizzenmast.

After crippling the French flagship Bucentaure, Victory moved on to the Redoutable. The two ships entangled each other, at which point snipers in the fighting tops of Redoutable were able to pour fire down onto the deck of Victory. Nelson was one of those hit: a bullet entered his shoulder, pierced his lung, and came to rest at the base of his spine. Nelson retained consciousness for four hours, but died soon after the battle was concluded with a British victory.(See Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson#Last words.)

After the battle Victory was then towed to Gibraltar, with Nelson's body on board preserved in a barrel of brandy (see Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson#"Tapping the Admiral"). Upon his body's arrival in London, Nelson was given a state funeral (one of only five non-royal Britons to receive the honour - others are Arthur Wellesley and Churchill) and entombment in St. Paul's Cathedral. He was laid to rest in a wooden coffin made from the mast of L'Orient which had been salvaged after the Battle of the Nile, within a sarcophagus originally carved for Cardinal Wolsey (when Wolsey fell from favour, it was confiscated by Henry VIII and was still lying around in royal collections in 1805!).

Legacy

Nelson was noted for his considerable ability to inspire and bring out the best in his men, to the point that it gained a name: "The Nelson Touch". Famous even while alive, after his death he was lionized like almost no other military figure in British history (his only peers are the Duke of Marlborough and Nelson's contemporary, the Duke of Wellington). Most military historians believe Nelson's ability to inspire officers of the highest rank and seamen of the lowest was central to his many victories, as was his unequaled ability to both strategically plan his campaigns and tactically shift his forces in the midst of battle. He may have been the greatest field commander in history. Certainly, he stands as the greatest warrior afloat.

It must also be said that his "Nelson touch" also worked with non-seamen; he was beloved in England by virtually everyone. (The only people not affected by him were those offended by his affair with Lady Hamilton!) Now as then, he is a popular hero, included in the top 10 of the 100 Greatest Britons poll sponsored by the BBC and voted for by the public, and commemorated in the extensive Trafalgar 200 celebrations in 2005, including the International Fleet Review. Even today phrases such as " England expects" and "nelson" (meaning "111") remain closely associated with English sporting teams.

Monuments to Nelson

The monumental Nelson's Column and the surrounding Trafalgar Square are notable locations in London to this day, and Nelson was buried in St. Paul's Cathedral. The first large monument to Nelson was a 43.5m tall pillar on Glasgow Green erected less than year after his death in 1806. Nelson's Monument was later constructed atop Calton Hill in Edinburgh. The first monument funded by popular subscription, sculpted by Richard Westmacott, was erected in Birmingham in 1809. Westmacott also sculpted memorials in Liverpool and Barbados. A Monument in Great Yarmouth to Nelson was started before his death but only completed in 1819. This is sometimes known as the Britannia monument as it is topped by that martial female rather than a statue of Nelson; a statue of Nelson can however be found in the grounds of Norwich Cathedral alongside the other Napoleonic hero, the Duke of Wellington, near the school he attended.

In Montreal there is a monument to Nelson erected in 1809 in Place Jacques-Cartier which was a market place at the time. It has carved scenes from Nelson's career around the base and the statue on top was claimed to be the oldest public statue of Nelson in the world. It was removed for several years due to excessive weathering but has been replaced after restoration.

There is also the Nelson memorial in Swarland, Northumberland which was raised as a private memorial of Nelson by his friend and sometime agent, Alexander Davison. Nelson's Pillar, a monument to Nelson in Dublin was destroyed by an bomb planted by former IRA men in 1966. The city of Nelson, New Zealand bears his name as well as Nelson Island on the Sunshine Coast, British Columbia, Canada.

One of the most unique monuments was constructed on Salisbury Plain, within cannon shot of Stonehenge, on land then owned by the Marquess of Queensbury. The monument consists of a series of clumps of trees in otherwise arable farmland. Known as the "Nile Clumps" they have been arranged to represent the positioning of French and British ships at the Battle of the Nile, considered as Nelson's greatest tactical victory. Some clumps still survive, and work is underway to replant some of those that have "sunk". They stand on land owned by the National Trust, forming part of the Stonehenge Historic Landscape estate.

Nelson and the Royal Navy

Victory is still kept on active commission in honour of Nelson — it is the flagship of the Second Sea Lord, and is the oldest commissioned ship of the Royal Navy. She can be found in Number 2 Dry Dock of the Royal Navy Museum at the Portsmouth Naval Base, in Portsmouth, England.

Two Royal Navy battleships have been named HMS Nelson in his honour. The Royal Navy celebrates Nelson every 21 October by holding Trafalgar Day dinners and toasting "The Immortal Memory" of Nelson.

The bullet that killed Nelson is permanently on display in the Grand Vestibule of Windsor Castle. The uniform that he wore during the battle, with the fatal bullet hole still visible, can be seen at the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich. A lock of Nelson's hair was given to the Imperial Japanese Navy from the Royal Navy after the Russo-Japanese War to commemorate the victory at the Battle of Tsushima. It is still on display at Kyouiku Sankoukan, a public museum maintained by the Japan Self-Defense Forces.

Nelson's descendants

Nelson had no legitimate children; his illegitimate daughter by Lady Hamilton, Horatia, subsequently married the Rev. Philip Ward and died in 1881. She and Rev. Ward had nine children: Horatio Nelson Ward (born 8 December 1822); Eleanor Phillipa Ward (born April 1824); Marmaduke Philip Smyth Ward (born 27 May 1825); John James Stephen Ward ( 13 February 1827- 1829); Nelson Ward (born 8 May 1828); William George Ward (born 8 April 1830); Edmund Ward ( 10 July 1832- 1833); Horatio Ward (born 24 November 1833), Philip Ward (born May 1834); Caroline Ward (born January 1836).

Because Lord Nelson had no legitimate heirs, the Viscountcy and 1798 Barony of Nelson (both "of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk") became extinct upon his death. However, the 1801 Barony of Nelson ("of the Nile and of Hilborough in the County of Norfolk") passed by a special remainder to Lord Nelson's brother, The Revd William Nelson. William was also created Earl Nelson in recognition of his brother's services, which title is still extant.

Literary influences

Although Nelson's exploits are often claimed to have provided inspiration for fictional characters such as Jack Aubrey, Horatio Hornblower and Honor Harrington, a close reading of the books does not bear this out. It is more likely Nelson's fame makes him the only Naval figure of the time that reviewers recall. Nelson appears, unnamed but recognizable, in Susan Sontag's novel The Volcano Lover: A Romance, which centers around Lady Emma Hamilton's affair with him. Nelson himself appears as a ghost, in Amber Benson's and Christopher Golden's Ghosts of Albion. Barry Unsworth's Losing Nelson centers on the Nelson's actions in Naples in 1799.

Last words

Nelson's final words (as related by Victory's Surgeon William Beatty, based on the accounts of those who were with Nelson when he died) were "Thank God I have done my duty". According to Beatty, he repeated these words several times until he became unable to speak.

In his dying hours, Nelson was also attended by his chaplain, Alexander Scott, his steward, Chevalier and Walter Burke, the purser, whose accounts have been available for modern biographers of Nelson. In those accounts, Nelson's last words were "Drink, drink. Fan, fan. Rub, rub.". This was a request to alleviate his symptoms of thirst, heat and the pains of his wounds (Pocock, Horatio Nelson, 1987, p.331).

It is a common misconception that Nelson's last words were "Kiss me, Hardy", spoken to the captain of HMS Victory, Thomas Hardy. Nelson did, in fact, say this to Hardy a short time before his death, but they were not his last words, and Hardy was not present at his death (having been called back on deck). Some have speculated that Nelson actually said "Kismet, Hardy", but this is impossible, since the word kismet did not enter the English language until much later.

"Tapping the Admiral"

According to a legend, naval rum rather than brandy was used to preserve his body in a barrel until it was returned to England. It is claimed that his crew had drunk half of the rum from the barrel by the time they reached London; the crew were supposed to have sucked out the rum using thin straws. However, this legend is unlikely, due to the great respect that the crew had for Nelson, and because his body was guarded night and day by a marine. Nevertheless, this legend has given rise to the slang term "tapping the Admiral", meaning illicit drinking, and may be related to the nickname given to Naval rum rations later, "Nelson's Blood" (although this may possibly be a deliberate echo of the Communion ritual).

Titles

Lord Nelson's full title, at the time of his death, was Vice Admiral of the White The Right Honourable Horatio, Viscount Nelson, Knight of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath. In addition, he was Baron Nelson, of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk, Baron Nelson, of the Nile and of Hillborough in the County of Norfolk, Duke of Bronte in the nobility of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Knight of the Grand Cross of the Order of St Ferdinand and of Merit and a Knight of the Ottoman Empire's Order of the Crescent, Knight Grand Commander of the Order of St Joachim, Colonel of the Marines, and Freeman of Norwich, Bath, Yarmouth, London, Salisbury and Exeter.