Korea
- This article is about the Korean civilization. For the state known as Korea in common usage, see South Korea. For other meanings, see Korea (disambiguation).
- Note: This article contains special characters.
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Korea or (less commonly) Corea refers to the former country and ancient civilization on the Korean peninsula in East Asia. The Korean people are a homogeneous ethnic group, speaking the distinct Korean language and using the unique script Hangul.
Since 1948, Korea has been partitioned into North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) and South Korea (Republic of Korea). In modern usage, "Korea" often refers to South Korea.
Names of Korea
"Korea" derives from the Goryeo (고려) period of Korean history, which in turn referred to the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo (고구려). In the Korean language, Korea as a whole is referred to as Chosŏn ( 조선) by North Korea and Han(-)guk ( 한국, "Han Nation") by South Korea.
History
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Gojoseon,
Jin |
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There is archaeological evidence that people were living on the Korean peninsula around 700,000 years ago, during the Lower Paleolithic.^ The earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 7000 BC, and the Neolithic period begins around 6000 BC. The Jeulmun Pottery Period spans from 3500 BC to 2000 BC.
Gojoseon
Gojoseon was founded in 2333 BC, according to the Dangun legend. Gojoseon cultural artifacts and walled cities are found throughout Korea and southern Manchuria. Archeological records indicate it likely developed from a federation of walled city-states into a state sometime between the 7th and 4th centuries BC, when it declared itself a kingdom and warred with China. In 108 BC, the Chinese Han dynasty defeated Gojoseon and installed four commanderies in northern Korea and Manchuria primarily as commercial outposts. Three of those commanderies fell to Korean resistance after only a few decades.
Korean and Chinese sources describe a state called Jin in southern Korea prior to Gojoseon's fall. Although very little is known about its political organization, bronze artifacts from the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC are found in the region. It was followed by Samhan, three loose confederacies, that variously claimed descent from Jin. In the north, the expanding Goguryeo united Buyeo, Okjeo, and Dongye in the former Gojoseon territory, and then destroyed the last Chinese commandery in 313 AD.
The Three Kingdoms
The three kingdoms Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje (the latter two arising from the Samhan) competed with each other as minor statelets fell or merged with these regional powers. Sophisticated state organizations developed under Confucian and Buddhist paradigms. Goguryeo was the most dominant power, but was at constant war with the Chinese Sui and Tang. Emperor Yang of Sui, with one million troops, invaded Goguryeo, but in 612 AD, General Eulji Mundeok pushed the Chinese force into retreat. The Sui fall from power in China was partly due to Goguryeo.
Silla was the least advanced of the Three Kingdoms, but had established a fierce military called the Hwarang. Silla first annexed Gaya, then conquered Baekje and Goguryeo with Tang assistance.
Balhae and Unified Silla
Silla eventually repulsed Tang from Goguryeo territory, although the northern part regrouped as Balhae. Silla ("Unified Silla" hereon) thus came to control most of the Korean peninsula by the 8th century. In the late 9th century, Unified Silla gave way to the brief Later Three Kingdoms period.
After the fall of Goguryeo, General Dae Joyeong led a group of his people to the Jilin area in Manchuria. The general founded the state of Balhae (Bohai in Chinese) as the successor to Goguryeo and regained control of lost northern territory. Eventually, Balhae's territory would extend from the Sungari and Amur Rivers in northern Manchuria all the way down to the northern provinces of modern Korea. In the 10th century Balhae was conquered by the Khitans.
Goryeo
The kingdom of Goryeo (918 - 1392) replaced Silla. Many members of the Balhae ruling class joined the newly founded Goryeo, which established boundaries of Korea to a little more than where they exist today (See Gando region which is now occupied by the Chinese). During this period, laws were codified, and a civil service system was introduced. Buddhism flourished throughout the peninsula.
In the 10th and 11th centuries, Goryeo continued to be plagued by attacks from Jurchen and Khitan tribes on the northern borders. Conflict increased between civil and military officials in Goryeo as the latter were degraded and poorly paid. This led to an uprising by military and forced some military officials to migrate to other areas. In 1238, the Mongols invaded Goryeo and laid the kingdom in ruins as resistance continued on and off for almost thirty years. As a result, a treaty was signed between the two kingdoms in favor of the Mongols. Under the control of the Mongols, Goryeo participated two failed attempts of the Mongol invasions of Japan. In the 1340s, the Mongol Empire declined rapidly due to internal struggles. Korea was at last able to forge political reform without mongol interference. At this time a General named Yi Seong-gye distinguished himself by repelling Japanese pirates who were constantly stealing mainland technology from Korean and Chinese merchant ships.
Joseon
In 1392 Yi Seong-gye established the Joseon Dynasty, moving the capital to Hanseong (now Seoul). During the late 1590s, Japan invaded Korea in two failed attempts, known together as the Seven-Year War, inflicting great destruction. With the help of Ming Chinese troops and the ironclad warships of Admiral Yi Sunsin, Joseon forces were able to push the Japanese back to Japan. However, in the 1620s and 1630s the Joseon dynasty was not able to defeat invading Manchu troops. The Korean rulers agreed to recognize the legitimacy of the new Qing Dynasty emperors. Korea then enjoyed more than two centuries of peace before foreign troops again penetrated Korea's border in the second half of the 19th century.
The Yi dynasty of Joseon was perhaps the longest-lived actively ruling dynasty in East Asia, and one of the longest of continuously ruling royal dynasties in world history.
Japanese occupation
Beginning in the 1870s, Japan began to force Korea away from China's sphere of influence. In 1895, Empress Min of Korea was murdered by the Japanese under Miura Goro (Kim et al. 1976). In 1909, the former Resident-General Ito Hirobumi was assassinated by a Korean nationalist An Jung-geun. His death was followed by the full annexation of Korea in 1910 with the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty. The Japanese occupation built Shinto shrines in Korea. [1] replaced use of Korean with the Japanese language, and obligated name-changes to Japanese family names. [2] Koreans resisted the colonization, which led to police actions, and economic exploitation. During the suppression of the independence movement in 1919, 7,000 Koreans were killed by Japanese police and soldiers. [3]
During the Pacific War (World War II), Koreans were used by Japanese to support the Japanese war effort; Koreans were conscripted into Japanese military, used as forced laborers, and as sex slaves, called " comfort women" (Cumings 1997). Although statistics are difficult to verify, around 60,000 Korean laborers in Japan are known to have died between 1939 and 1945.
Japanese occupation lasted until 1945 when it was defeated by the Allied Forces at the end of World War II. Anti-Japanese sentiment still runs strong in Korea, as a result of what Koreans see as continuing unrepentant actions.
Division
With the defeat of Japan in 1945, the Japanese colonial government was immediately replaced with American and Soviet presence. The Soviet Union supported the North Korean government, which was also associated with Communist China; the United States was closely allied to South Korea, helping Koreans with experience under the Japanese occupation to gain power and suppress Communists. Koreans faced bitter divisions: former collaborators were widely mistrusted and hated by Koreans, yet they possessed the most experience and remained in power. Communism began to take hold in Korea, and Koreans who had fought along with Communist China gained power and fame.
Civil war and hopes for reunification
The Korean War resulted directly from the United States policy of Containment. The United States supported Korean nationalists who opposed Communism, funded and staffed the South Korean army, and influenced the United Nations to support the South Korean military (Cumings 1997). In 1945, in the aftermath of WWII, the United Nations developed plans for a trusteeship administration, the United States effectively began administering the peninsula south of the 38th parallel and the Soviet Union administering north. The politics of the Cold War resulted in the 1948 establishment of two separate governments.
The Korean War began in June 1950 and lasted until 1953. The North Korean army invaded the South, prompting U.S. and then Chinese intervention. Millions of Koreans died, and the United States waged a bombing campaign over North Korea that effectively destroyed most cities: "There were simply 'no more cities in North Korea'" (Cumings 1997: 298). After three devastating years of fighting, the war ended in a ceasefire agreement at approximately the same boundary, though South Korea gained slightly more territory than it lost. This boundary was set as the demilitarized zone which constitutes the border between the two countries. The two countries never signed a peace treaty. Both Korean states proclaim eventual reunification as a goal, and a united Korea is very much a part of Korean ethno-cultural identity.
Since the 1990s, with progressively liberal South Korean administrations, as well as the death of North Korean founder Kim Il-sung, the two sides have taken halting, symbolic steps towards cooperation, in international sporting events, reunification of separated family members, and tourism.
Recently, in effort to promote reconciliation, the two Koreas have adopted a single Unification Flag. While this flag may represent Korea at international sporting events, it is not the official flag of either North Korea or South Korea. Both states still officially retain the two separate national flags that they have used since their foundings in 1948.
Geography
Korea is located on the Korean Peninsula in North-East Asia. It is bound by two countries and three seas. To the northwest, the Yalu River separates Korea from China and to the north, the Tumen River separates Korea from Russia. The Yellow Sea is to the west, the South China Sea is to the south, and the East Sea is to the east of Korea. Notable islands include Jeju-do, Ulleung-do, and Dok-do.
The southern part and western part of the Korean mainland have well developed plains, while the eastern and northern parts are mountainous. The highest mountain in Korea is Mt. Baekdu (2744m, Changbaishan in chinese). The border with China runs through the mountain. The southern extension of Mt. Baekdu is a highland called Gaema Gowon. This highland was mainly raised during the Cenozoic orogeny and partly covered by volcanic matter. To the south of Gaema Gowon, successive high mountains are located along the eastern coast of the Korean Peninsula. This series of mountains is named Baekdudaegan. Some significant mountains include Sobaeksan (2,184 m), Baeksan (1,724 m), Geumgangsan (1,638 m), Seoraksan (1,708 m), Taebaeksan (1,567 m) and Jirisan (1,915 m). There are several lower, secondary mountain series whose direction is almost perpendicular to that of Baekdudaegan. They are developed along the tectonic line of Mesozoic orogeny and their directions are NW, NWW.
As opposed to the old mountains on the mainland, some important islands in Korea were formed by volcanic activity in the recent Cenozoic. Jeju-do, situated off the south coastline of the Korean Peninsula, is a large volcanic island whose main mountain is Mt. Halla (1950 m). Ulleung-do and the Dok-do are volcanic islands in the Sea of Japan, whose composition is more feslic than Jeju. The volcanic islands tend to be younger as one moves westward.
Because the mountainous regions are biased toward the eastern part of the peninsula, the main rivers tend to flow to westwards. Two exceptions are the southward-flowing Nakdong River and the Seomjin River. Important rivers running westward include the Yalu, Cheongcheon River, Daedong River, Han River, Geum River, and Yeongsan River. These rivers have vast flood plains and they provide an ideal environment for rice cultivation.
The southern and southwestern coastline of the Korean Peninsula is a well-developed Lias coastline. It is known as Dadohae in Korean. Its complicated coastline provides mild seas, and the resulting calm environment allows for safe navigation, fishing, and seaweed farming. In addition to the complex coastline, the western coast of the Korean peninsula has an extremely high tidal amplitude (at Incheon, around the middle of the western coast, it is as high as 9 m). Vast tidal flats are developing on the south and west coastline of the Korean Peninsula.
Demographics
(See also: Demographics of South Korea) The Korean Peninsula is populated almost exclusively by ethnic Koreans, although a significant minority of ethnic Chinese (about 20,000 [4]) exists in South Korea, and small communities of ethnic Chinese and Japanese are said to exist in North Korea ( [5]). Foreign workforce in South Korea is estimated at over half a million. The combined population (including North and South Korea) of the Korean Peninsula is about 73,000,000 people.
Culture and philosophy
In ancient Chinese texts, Korea is referred to as "Rivers and Mountains Embroidered on Silk" (錦繡江山) and "Eastern Nation of Decorum" (東方禮儀之國). During the 7th and 8th centuries, land and sea trading networks connected Korea to Arabia. As early as 845, Arab traders mentioned Korea saying, "Over the sea beyond China lies a mountainous country called 'Silla', rich in gold. Muslims who arrive there by accident are so attracted by its character that they stay there forever and do not want to leave."
According to Japanese records, Chinese knowledge and technology, including Chinese characters and the major classics, such as the Confucian Analects, were introduced to Japan by Korean scholars. In 554, the Korean kingdom of Baekje sent doctors, herb and calendar specialists, and diviners to Japan, and in 602, Kwalluk, a Baekje monk, was dispatched to Japan to deliver books on astronomy calendar-making, geography, and divination
Although about half of the population is non-religious, Confucian tradition has dominated Korean thought, along with contributions by Buddhism, Taoism, and Korean Shamanism. Since the middle of the 20th century, however, Christianity has competed with Buddhism to be the dominant religious force in South Korea. Koreans valued scholarship and rewarded education and study of Chinese classic texts; Yangban boys were highly educated in Hanja. Until modern times, Koreans placed a lot of emphasis on hereditary status. Until the 10th century, a man's "bone rank" (determined by the rank of his father and his mother) defined his social status and what government post he would be appointed to. From the 10th century through to the end of the 19th century, the social status of a man's father and mother determined which civil service examination, if any, he could take but did not guarantee him a post.
Festivities showcase vibrant colors, which are attributed to Mongolian influences; bright red, yellow, and green often mark traditional Korean motifs [6]. Korean cuisine is known for its traditional dish called kimchi which uses a distinctive fermentation process of preserving vegetables. Chili peppers are also commonly used in Korean cuisine, which has given it a reputation for being spicy. See also Korean cuisine.
Science and technology
One of the best known artifacts of Korea's history of science and technology is Cheomseongdae, a 9-meter high observatory built in 633. It served as the world's first astronomical tower for observing the heavens.
The world's first metal movable type was invented in Korea in 1232, before Johann Gutenberg developed metal letterset type (Cumings 1997: 65). Though Koreans used wooden printing blocks by 751, this was a significant development in printing allowing continued use of the same type. Hangul, one of the world's most scientifically phonetic written scripts, was created by King Sejong in 1443. The world's first self-striking water clock was invented in 1434 by Chang Yong-sil, who later developed an even more complicated water-dock with additional astronomical devices.
During the Joseon period, Korean silk was considered by China to be the best in the world and Korean pottery made with blue-green celadon was highly valued in Japan. In the Joseon era, Korea advanced traditional arts and crafts, such as white celadon glazes, fine silk, and paper. Also, during this time, the world's first ironclad warships, the Geobukseon (or "Turtle ship") were invented.
Korea in sporting events
South Korea hosted the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, giving the country an economic boost through increased tourism and greater world recognition. At the time, North Korea boycotted the event on the grounds that it was not made co-host.
A unified Korean team competed under the Unification Flag in 1991 in both the 41st World Table Tennis Championship in Chiba, Japan and in the 6th World Youth Soccer Championship in Lisbon, Portugal. A unified Korean team marched under the Unification Flag in the opening ceremonies of the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, the 2002 Asian Games in Busan, the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, and the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin but competed separately in sporting events. As of the 2006 Asian Games, South Korean officials have announced that the countries shall compete in the same unified sporting teams as well.
In the summer of 2002, the final tournament phase of the FIFA World Cup was hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan with 10 stadiums in each country. The two Koreas competed separately, however. There were suggestions that North Korea should host at least one or two matches, but nothing of the sort came to pass. While South Korea qualified automatically as hosts and made a surprise semifinal appearance, North Korea failed to progress from the Asian Football Confederation regional qualifiers and missed the big event.