Myanmar

Pyi-daung-zu Myan-ma Naing-ngan-daw
Union of Myanmar

Flag Coat of arms
Motto:
Anthem: Ga Ba Majay Ba Ma Pyay ("We Shall Never Give Up Our Motherland, Burma")
Capital	Yangon (moving to Pyinmana by April 2006) 16°46′ N 96°09′ E
Largest city	Yangon (Rangoon)
Official language(s)	Burmese language
Government Chairman, SPDC Prime Minister	Military junta Sr. Gen. Than Shwe Lt.-Gen. Soe Win
Independence - Date	From the United Kingdom January 4, 1948
Area • Total • Water (%)	678,500 km² ( 39th) {{{areami²}}} mi² 3.06%%
Population • 2004 est. • n/a census • Density	54 million ( 29th) n/a 62/km² ( n/a) {{{population_densitymi²}}}/mi²
GDP ( PPP) • Total • Per capita	n/a estimate n/a ( 60th) $1 ( n/a)
HDI ( 2003)	0.578 ( 129th) – medium
Currency	K; kyat ( MMK)
Time zone • Summer ( DST)	( UTC+6:30) ( UTC+6:30)
Internet TLD	.mm (formerly .bu)
Calling code	+95

The Union of Myanmar (also known as the Union of Burma by bodies and states who do not recognise the military junta's right to rule) is the largest country (in geographical area) in mainland Southeast Asia. It is bordered by Tibet and the People's Republic of China on the north, Laos on the east, Thailand on the south east, Bangladesh on the west, and India on the north west, with the Andaman Sea to the south, and the Bay of Bengal to the south west. There are over 2,000 kilometers (1,243 mi) of coast line. The country was ruled by a military junta led by General Ne Win from 1962 to 1988, and its political system today remains under the tight control of its military government, since 1992, led by Senior General Than Shwe.

Origin and history of the name

In 1989, the military junta officially changed the English version of its name from Burma to Myanmar (along with changes in the English versions of many place names in the country, such as its former capital city, from Rangoon to Yangon). The official name of the country in the Burmese language, Myanmar, did not change, however. The renaming proved to be politically controversial, seen by some as being less inclusive of minorities, and linguistically unscholarly. Some deny that the military junta had authority to "officially" change the name in English in the first place. Acceptance of the name change in the English speaking world has been slow, with many people still using the name Burma to refer to the country. Major news organisations like the BBC still refer to it as Burma.

History

In a series of wars ( 1824– 1826, 1851– 1852 and 1885– 1886) Burma lost territory to the British and Siamese and became a province of India under British rule. On April 1, 1937, Burma became self administered colony independent of the Indian administration. During World War II Burma became a major front in the South-East Asian Theatre. After initial successes by the Japanese in the Burma Campaign which saw them expel the British from most of Burma, the British fought back and by July 1945 had retaken the country. Burmese fought for both sides in the war. The Burma 1st Division, the Kachin Levies, the Karen Rifles and in other formations such as the American-Kachin Rangers fought for the Allies, and the Burmese National Army under the command of Aung San fought for the Japanese.

On January 4, 1948 at 04:20 am, the nation became sovereign, as the Union of Burma, with U Nu as the first Prime Minister. Democratic rule ended in 1962 with a military coup d'état led by General Ne Win. Ne Win ruled for nearly 26 years, bringing in harsh reforms. In 1990 free elections were held for the first time in almost 30 years, but the landslide victory of the NLD, the party of Aung San Suu Kyi was voided by the military, which refused to step down.

One of the top figures in Burmese history in the 20th century is Army founder and freedom figure General Aung San, a student-turned activist whose daughter is 1991 Nobel Peace Laureate and worldwide peace, freedom and democracy icon Aung San Suu Kyi of the NLD, now under house arrest. The third most recognised Burmese figure in the world is U Thant, who was UN Secretary General for two terms and highly respected throughout United Nations' history.

In November 2005, the military junta announced that the national capital would be moved from Yangon to Pyinmana.

Politics

Myanmar has been under military rule since 1962. The current Head of State is Senior General Than Shwe who holds the title of "Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council." His appointed prime minister was Khin Nyunt until 19 October 2004, when he was replaced by Gen. Soe Win. Almost all cabinet offices are held by military officers. US sanctions against the military government have been largely ineffective, due to loopholes in the sanctions and the willingness of mainly Asian business to continue investing in Myanmar and to initiate new investments, particularly in natural resource extraction. For example, the French oil company Total S.A. is able to buy Myanmar's oil despite the country being under sanctions, although Total (formerly TotalFinaElf) is the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for alleged connections to human rights abuses along the gas pipeline jointly owned by Total, the American company Unocal, and the Myanmar military.¹ The United States clothing and shoe industry could also be affected if all the sanctions loopholes were to be closed, although they were already subject to boycotts prior to US sanctions imposed in June of 2002. At the same time, the US-led sanctions are criticized by many for their adverse effects mainly on the civilian population rather than on the military rulers.²

The regime is accused of having a questionable human rights record and the human rights situation in the country is a subject of concern for a wide number of international organizations. There is no independent judiciary in Myanmar and political opposition to the military government is not tolerated. Internet access is highly restricted. The state uses software-based filtering from US company Fortinet to limit the materials citizens can access on-line, including free email services, free web hosting and most political opposition and pro-democracy pages. [1]

In 1988, protests against economic mismanagement and political oppression were violently repressed; on August 8 of that year, the military opened fire on demonstrators in what has come to be known as the 8888 uprising (a partial list of victims is here). Nonetheless, the 1988 protests paved way for the 1990 elections; these were however invalidated by the military. Aung San Suu Kyi, whose opposition party won 83% of parliamentary seats in a 1990 national election, but who was prevented from becoming prime minister by the military, has earned international praise as an activist for the return of democratic rule to Myanmar. She won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. She has been repeatedly placed under house arrest, although in recent years the regime has been willing to enter into negotiations with her and her party, the National League for Democracy. She was placed under house arrest on May 31, 2003, following an attack on her convoy in northern Myanmar. Her house arrest was extended for yet another year in late November of 2005. [2]

The junta faces increasing international isolation. Burma's situation was referred to the UN Security Council for the first time in December for an informal consultation. ASEAN has also stated its frustration with Burma's government. However, with India and China supporting the junta, any drastic change in the country's political situation seems unlikely.

Subdivisions

Myanmar is divided into states and divisions. Divisions are predominantly Bamar. States, in essence, are divisions in which particular ethnic minorities exist. There are 7 divisions and 7 states in the country. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into townships.

Major cities such as Yangon and Mandalay have larger metropolitan areas. Therefore, townships in the suburbs of such cities are designated as myo-thit (New Town). Upon reaching the government's installed development markers, the New Towns become townships.

Within the states, there are ethnic-based movements for self-autonomy and independence.

Divisions ()

• Ayeyarwady Division (Irrawady Division)
• Bago Division (Pegu Division)
• Magway Division
• Mandalay Division
• Sagaing Division
• Tanintharyi Division (Tenasserim Division)
• Yangon Division (Rangoon Division)

States ()

• Chin State
• Kachin State
• Kayin State (Karen State)
• Kayah State (Karenni State)
• Mon State
• Rakhine State (Arakan State)
• Shan State

Geography

Myanmar is located between Bangladesh and Thailand, with China to the north and India to the north-west, with coastline on the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea. The country has a total area of 678,500 km² (261,970 sq. mi), of which almost half is forest or woodland.

In the north, the Hengduan Shan mountains form the border with China. The fertile plains of the Irrawady and Salween Rivers are in the central lowlands of Myanmar. Most of the country's population lives in this central lowland. East of Mandalay lies the Shan Plateau. In the south, the Irrawaddy River fans out into a wide and fertile delta. Many crops are grown in this region, which borders the Andaman Sea. The Gulf of Martaban also indents the southern coast of Myanmar. It drains into the Andaman Sea.

Economy

During British colonisation, Myanmar was the wealthiest country in Southeast Asia and was believed to be on the fast track to development. Today, it is one of the poorest nations in the world, suffering from the 1962 military takeover and Burmese Way to Socialism, a plan to consolidate and nationalise all industries. During this period, there was economic mismanagement and stagnation. In 1989, the government of Myanmar began decentralising economic control and has since liberalised some portions of the economy. However, the lucrative industries of gems, oil and forestry remain under the control of the military government. The United Nations lists Myanmar as a LDC³ (least developed country). Tourism is being encouraged by the government; however, fewer than 750,000 tourists enter the country yearly. Private enterprises are often co-owned or indirectly by the Tatmadaw. Because of Myanmar's oil reserves, both China and India have attempted to strengthen ties with the government in recent years. The gap between the wealthy and the poor continues to grow larger.

Some nations, such as Canada and the United Kingdom have placed trade sanctions on Myanmar. Foreign investment comes primarily from China, Singapore and Thailand.

Myanmar lacks adequate infrastructure, and has suffered as a result. Goods travel primarily through the Burmese-Thai borders, from which most illegal drugs are exported, and through the Ayeyarwady River. Railroads are rudimentary, with few repairs since their construction in the 19th century. Highways are normally unpaved, except in the major cities. Energy shortages are common throughout the country. Myanmar is the second-largest producer of heroin in the world. Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, and metals. The lack of an educated workforce also contributes to the growing problems of the Burmese economy.

Demographics

All population figures are at best educated guesses. The last accurate census was taken by the British in the 1930s. The largely untabulated results of the last pre-world war two census were destroyed during the Japanese invasion. No trusthworthy census has been taken in over 70 years. The CIA World Factbook gives an unsupported estimate of about 42.9 million and one branch of the UN reports there are about 50 million ( [3] mid-2005). A million or more Burmese might be living and working in neighbouring countries (especially Thailand). With figures varying for the whole country by several million, it is evident that figures for various minority groups are not very reliable. Reports and observations in the northern half of the country suggest that several hundred thousand Chinese have migrated into Myanmar in recent years. Other reports suggest that some of these emigres have returned to China in recent years.

Ethnicity

Myanmar is ethnically diverse. Although the government recognises over 100 distinct ethnic groups, the actual number is much lower. The dominant ethnic group are the Bamar who form what is guessed to be 68% of the population and speak Burmese. 10% of the population are Shan, who speak Shan dialects, related to Laotian and Thai. The Kayin (Karen) make up 7% of the population, and speak a variety of Tibeto-Burman languages.

The Rakhine (Arakanese), who constitute 4% of the population, are ethnically related to the Bamar, but are culturally different. Overseas Chinese (mainly Hokkien and Cantonese speakers) form approximately 3% of the population, but are primarily unrecognised by the government (in terms of citizenship). Mon, who form 2% of the population, are ethnolinguistically related to the Khmer. Overseas Indians (mainly Tamil, Hindi, and Bengali speakers) comprise 2% as well, and like the Chinese, do not have citizenship rights. The remainder are Kachin, Chin, and other ethnic minorities. The Anglo-Burmese, once forming at least 8%^{[ citation needed]} of the population and forming at least a quarter of the population of Rangoon have decreased in number. There are no trustworthy census numbers for the country since the 1930s. All of the estimates with regard to percentages of population are only guesswork with no scientific basis.

The existing government continues to honour both colonial laws and laws passed after independence regarding citizenship, granting it only to those who have lineage in Myanmar’s former entities prior to colonisation. Overseas groups, particularly the Indians and Chinese, to obtain such citizenship, have intermixed with the local populace, making the percentages more obscure. A person of two ethnic backgrounds is known as kabya. "Citizenship" for those not of the majority is generally of dubious value because of open discrimination. Large portions of the population have for years functioned without official citizenship.

After the “Burmese Way to Socialism” was enacted in the 1960s, millions of people left the country. Anti-Chinese riots occurring the 1960s and 1970s caused a large but temporary exodus of ethnic Chinese but many Chinese have entered the country in recent years. Wars with various ethic groups in the border areas forced many more people out of the country. In addition, many Indians (Muslim and non-Muslim) returned to Pakistan and India because of discriminatory policies.

The government is widely known for its persecution of minority groups throughout the country, particularly because of civil unrest and calls for secession and self-autonomy. Throughout the mid-1990s, the government negotiated treaties to end warfare. However, the government continues to detain and relocate minority groups further from Bamar-dominant areas. In addition, massive refugee camps exist along the borders of both Thailand and Bangladesh.

Language

Burmese is the official language of Myanmar. Because of years of British colonisation, English is still spoken in Bamar-dominant areas. Ethnic minorities, with the exception of overseas groups, tend to speak Burmese as a second language.

The Burmese alphabet developed from the Mon script, which was adapted from a southern Indian script during the 8th century. The earliest known inscriptions in the Myanmar script date from the 11th century.

Religion

Buddhism, particularly Theravada Buddhism is practised by 89% of the population, especially the Bamar (and its subgroups, including the Rakhine), Shan, Mon, and Chinese. Christianity is practiced by 4% of the population, especially the Chin, Kayin, Anglo-Burmese and Anglo-Indians. Protestantism is most practised among Christians. 4% of the population practise Islam; these Muslims are divided amongst long-established persons of Indian descent, persons of mixed Indo-Burmese descent, persons of Persian, Arab and Chinese descent, as well as the native Rohingya Muslims of Rakhine. The Muslim population is socially marginalised, and is widely-segregated. Small segments of the population practise Hinduism or animism. The percentages given in the paragraph are guesswork. There are no trustworthy figures for the percentages of the population that follow particular religions.

Buddhism has been patronised since independence by both Civilian and military governments. Large amounts of state money under both military governments and the government of U Nu in the 1950s have been provided for the creation of Buddhist monuments and the general support of Buddhism. The government continually persecutes Christians and Muslims. Religious tolerance does exist, in theory, but because of stigmas attached to certain religions, particularly Christianity and Islam, such tolerance is often undermined.

Culture

Although a variety of indigenous cultures exist in Myanmar, the dominant culture is Bamar-based. Bamar culture has been influenced by the cultures of neighbouring China, India, and Thailand. This is reflected in aspects of its language, cuisine, and music. The arts (particularly literature) have historically been influenced by the Burmese form of Theravada Buddhism. British colonisation also introduced Western elements of culture to Myanmar, particularly in education and architecture.

Burmese, which is linguistically related to Tibetan and to the family of Chinese languages, is written in a script consisting of circular and semi-circular letters which originated from the Mon script.

See also:

• Cuisine of Myanmar
• Literature of Myanmar
• Music of Myanmar

International rankings

• GDP per capita — 185th of 232 countries
• Index of Economic Freedom — 155th of 157 countries
• Reporters Without Borders Worldwide Press Freedom Index — 165th of 167 countries
• Corruption Perceptions Index 2004, Transparency International — 142th of 146 countries
• Save the Children: State of the World's Mothers 2004 Children's index: 114th of 157 countries
• Environmental Sustainability Index — 46th of 146 countries
• Population, Population (US Census Bureau), 26th most-populated country in the world.
• Area/Size of Country, 39th largest out of 194.
• WHO ranking of the health systems, 190 out of 190 countries.
• Earthquake Prone Countries, Listed in 57 most-earthquake prone countries.
• HIV Infected Population, 24th largest among 148 countries.
• Labor Force, 22nd largest in the world.
• Inflation Rate - Consumer Prices, 3rd highest in the world.
• Opium Production (UNODC), 2nd largest in the world.
• Human Development Index (UNDP), 131 out of 175.
• Internet User Density (CIA), 0.0596%, 155th out of 217.
• Rice grower (by area of land), 8th largest in the world.